Crosscult Lecture Notes (Lectures 8-12)

LECTURE EIGHT

Migrant = An individual who leaves the primary cultural contexts in which he/she was raised in and moves to a new cultural context for an extended period.

Types of Migrant Groups

1.     Voluntary – SOLJOURNERS vs IMMIGRANTS

Soljourners = Travellers who move into new cultural contexts for a limited period of time and a specific purpose.

(eg in 2011 when floods in Thailand caused Japanese companies to allow their Thai workers to move to Japan to work there for the time being)

Immigrants = People who voluntarily leave one country to settle in another. Many migrate for political, economic or social reasons.

(eg in 2010 when the USA reported that more people were migrating to India to find jobs. Basically, migrating  = buh-bye, bitches, I’m out, I’m heading where the grass is greener)

2.     Involuntary – LONG-TERM vs SHORT-TERM

Long-Term = People who are often forced to relocate permanently due to war, famine or oppression (think of the Rwanda refugees).

Short-Term = Domestic refugees who are forced to temporarily relocate due to natural disasters (like tsunami refugees).

NOTE: Immigrants can be simultaneously accepted and rejected, as well as privileged and disadvantaged. {CHIM BUT TRUE OKAY}

Migrant-Host Relationships

1.     Assimilation = When migrants value the host culture more than their own.

-         The individual doesn’t want to maintain an isolated identity, but wants to maintain relationships with other groups in the new culture

-         Central focus not on retaining one’s cultural heritage

-         When dominant group forces assimilation, it often entails the migrant giving up or losing many aspects of the original culture

2.     Separation = When migrants value their own culture more than the host culture.

-         Migrants may choose to retain their original culture and avoid interaction with other groups (like how the Amish avoid interaction with other cultures)

-         Segregation will happen when separation is initiated or enforced by the dominant society, sometimes even by legislation (like how the African-Americans used to be discriminated against)

3.     Integration = When migrants value both their own and the host culture.

-         They’re interested in maintaining their own culture as well as having daily interactions with other groups

-         Involves a greater interest in maintaining one’s own cultural identity (different from assimilation!)

-         Migrants resist assimilation in other ways (like choosing to speak their native language at home while speaking the local language outside, or eating their native food at home while also trying the local food outside)

-         Successful integration also depends on the willingness of the dominant society to accept the cultures of others!

RESISTING INTEGRATION: Refusing to consume popular culture products, rejecting the fashion of the host country etc.

4.     Marginalisation = When migrants value neither their own nor the host culture.

-         The individual or group expresses little interest in maintaining cultural ties with either the dominant or migrant culture (so sad!)

-         Individuals who live on the margin of a culture cannot participate fully in the political and social scene due to cultural differences (eg war brides, who don’t have anyone to connect with, and can’t talk much to the locals due to the cultural differences)

5.     Cultural Hybridity = Allows for the fact that migrant experiences do not necessarily fit neatly into the four houses.

-         Takes into consideration the host culture’s reception towards migrants and the fact that migrants shift from one type to another depending on the context (social separation, economic assimilation, linguistic integration)

Culture Shock = A relatively short-term feeling of disorientation or discomfort due to the lack of familiar cues in the environment.

Criteria for culture shock: There MUST be cultural contact, since migrants who choose to keep their distance from the host culture are less likely to experience culture shock.

Symptoms of Cultural Shock

-         Physiological (headaches, nausea)

-         Emotional (irritability, increased anxiety)

-         Communicational (withdrawal from relationships and conversations, excessive complaining)

Stages of Cultural Adaptation

1.     Pre-departure: Optimism/Excitement

2.     Stage One: Everything is Beautiful

-         Honeymoon stage

-         Excitement, pleasure and self-satisfaction; Excitement and curiosity overcome minor discomforts (who cares if I’m cold, starving and without a roof over my head – I’m in JAPAN!!! Whoohoo!~!!)

3.     Stage Two: Everything is Awful

-         Anxiety begins, restlessness, disappointment

-         Increased difficulty in communication

-         Marked by a loss of social cues and a time of inconvenience

-         Physical, mental and emotional symptoms

-         Duration may vary (weeks, months… It may even be permanent)

Coping Strategies

1.     Fight: Scoff at the host country (my country is better than yours!)

-         Looking down on the host country’s culture; ethnocentric acting

-         Destruction of the host country’s property (may lead to legal difficulties)

-         Symptoms: excessive irritation, angry outbursts, defensiveness and frustration over minor things

2.     Flight: The removal of thyself from the culture of the host country(or even the removal of oneself from the country itself)

-         Symptoms: Nervousness, depression, alcoholism etc

3.     Filter: Denial of reality

-         Denial of differences between migrants and people in the host culture

-         Glorification of home culture, remembering only the good things and glossing over the bad

-         Going native by totally rejecting the old culture (their own culture) and adopting the host culture (this doesn’t work cos the migrant is never 100% accepted into society)

4.     Flex: A more positive phase when the migrant tries new things and starts observing the new culture that he/she is in. Basically starting to adapt to the new culture.

-         Eventually leads to the “Everything is OK” stage

4.     Stage Three: Everything is OK

-         Migrant has a more balanced view of the positive and negative sides of the host culture, and does not feel a need to protect himself/herself

-         Increased contact with host nationals and less confusion and uncertainty

-         More accustomed to the food, sights, smells, sounds and nonverbal behaviours of the host culture

5.     Stage Four: Acceptance/Adaptation

-         Migrant feels at home in the new culture and feels comfortable in social situations

-         Increased involvement in activities and cultivation of friendships

-         Adaptation to the host culture’s style of doing things (let’s assume that the migrant has also learned the language of the host country)

6.     U-Curve (Entry Cycle)

-         3-stage process in cultural adaptation

7.     W-Curve (Entry-Re-Entry Cycle)

-         When the migrant returns to his/her cultural context and encounters re-entry shock (they experience culture shock again cos the culture of their home country differs from that of the host country, which the migrant has already gotten accustomed to)

8.     Final Stage: Re-entry Shock

-         Experienced on returning to the home country

-          Now your HOME country feels like a HOST country (jeng jeng jeng!)

-         For example, I go to Canada and experience cultural shock (the weather, food, people, environment in general are all different), and it may take a while for me to get used to the country. Let’s say that I return to Singapore after maybe 2 years. BAM, cultural shock because the weather, the food, the people are all different from that in Canada, which I have already gotten used to. Therefore, I experience cultural shock AGAIN and need to accustom myself to an environment that feels new to me AGAIN.

How to Adapt to a New Culture

Long-term Cultural Adaptation = Long-term acculturation/adaptation to new cultural behaviours that are different from one’s primary learned culture. (Takes place after the early adaptation experience of culture shock, involves a new socialisation/learning process)

Factors contributing to adaptation process:

-         need for survival skills

-         assumption that attitudes and behaviours will ultimately change

The Stress-Adaptation-Growth Model

Basically explains that adaptation is an accumulative but progressive series of positive/negative experiences.

(Don’t bother so much about the model; it’s just there to make the notes look more professional lololol)

How to Alleviate Culture Shock in a Business Situation

-         Carefully select your personnel for overseas assignments. {Don’t choose someone who’s likely to collapse and have a nervous breakdown if he/she can’t get used to the new environment!}

-         Provide pre-departure training for the host country. Basically teach the staff how to act in the host country, what to do and what to avoid. {May also help to prevent potentially awkward moments and opportunities for WWIII between countries.}

-         Provide feedback and rewards. FEEDBACK what is good/what can be done better and REWARD those who can follow the instructions properly and adapt to the host culture.

-         Develop employees to their maximum potential. {Wait, wasn’t this on the company’s mission and vision board…?}

Intercultural Training

May be provided for the employees so they do not experience so much cultural shock when in the host country.

1.     Intellectual Model.

Give them facts about the host country.

2.     Area Training Model

Conduct field trips {TWCT reference: You cow is it?}.

3.     Self-Awareness Model

Have them role-play some scenarios that they may encounter while in the host country.

4.     Cultural Awareness Model

Have the employees recognise their own values in contrast to other cultures.

5.     Interaction Model

Perhaps you could have a guest from the host country to come in and speak to the employees about the country, and the employees could ask questions (not stupid ones, hopefully) and learn more about the host country.

6.     Multidimensional Approach

All the models coming together.

LECTURE NINE

Intercultural Relationships

ü  More knowledge acquired about the world (specific information about unfamiliar cultural patterns/languages learnt)

ü  One close intercultural relationship makes it easier to form another

ü  Stereotypes are broken

ü  New skills are acquired (eg learning how to cook their traditional food or playing their sports)

ü  Sense of connectedness with others and the ability to establish a lifelong pattern of communication across differences

û  Negative stereotyping

û  Overcoming initial anxiety (such anxiety is usually greater in intercultural relationships and arises from concern about possible negative consequences)

û  More work needs to be done to keep intercultural relationships going due to 3 aspects:

1.     Need to explain to ourselves

2.     Need to explain to each other

3.     Need to explain to communities

(What’s your motive for this relationship? Mutual benefit or because you genuinely like them?)

Stereotyping = A way of categorising and processing information (detrimental when negative and held rigidly – they become an “intellectual prison”)

Biggest obstacle to intercultural relationships: MAJORITY COMMUNITIES.

-         The majority has the most to gain by maintaining social inequality, so they are less likely to initiate intercultural relationships

-         The minority has more to gain by initiating intercultural relationships, so they are more motivated to have them

Cultural Differences in Notions of Friendship

Related to ideas about identity and values

Individualist: Friendship is voluntary and spontaneous

Collectivist: Friendships may include obligations (so some may take a longer or shorter time to call someone a “friend”)

Asian Views on Friendship

“Friends” vs “Acquaintances”

Guanxi: Trust, partnership. A social connection built on shared identities such as kinship or a native place.

-         may not mean friendship per se, but a friendship with implications of continued exchange of favours

Ganqing = Feelings. Refers to a sense of interdependency in a relationship.

Renqing = Favour. A mechanism that regulates personal relationships and goodwill.

Mianzi = “Face”. A person’s public image and reputation; Prestige.

Such concepts may not be understood by a person from a more individualistic culture. For example, an American may think that it’s not right for people to act this way, but to a Chinese, it’s an unspoken logic.

Stages in Relational Development

1.     Initial Attraction

Relationships are formed due to:

-         Circumstances (like working on a project together)

-         Proximity (like falling for your neighbour)

-         Physical attraction (may be culturally based)

-         Similarity (same interests, attitudes, personality traits)

-         Dissimilarity (ever heard of opposites attract?)

2.     Orientation Phase

The individuals learn to adjust and align themselves to the new relationship, and learn the dos and don’ts about the other’s culture.

3.     Exploratory Phase

-         Different cultural rules govern how to regard strangers (with hostility or friendliness)

-         Differences may be due to different cultural patterns, like a preference for high or low-context communication

4.     Stability Phase

Friendships = Intimacy = Sharing more private/personal information.

Self-disclosure can be modelled as three concentric circles representing three areas of information we share with others:

1.     Outer boundary (superficial information)

2.     Middle (more personal information)

3.     Inner core (private information)

Communication in Intercultural Relationships

-         finding similarity in your relationships that transcend the cultural differences

-         making time and getting involved (shared friendship networks)

-         self-disclosure (the placement of trust) as a turning point of understanding

Intercultural Work Relationships

-         most diversity encountered at work, so it’s important to understand this diversity

-         diverse workforce an advantage in global economy (because it means that you can adapt to different cultures more easily as compared to someone who has never worked with someone from a different culture)

-         the challenge is getting along with people from different cultures (your ideas/personalities/attitudes may clash)

Intercultural Relationships Online

Implications of computer-mediated communication (CMC) in facilitating OR hindering intercultural relationships.

-         no line of sight data (no way of verification – is the person you’re talking to really 19 or 59? How do you really know?)

-         language (eg one may speak Mandarin and one may speak Spanish, but it’s possible to also use the internet as help)

-         communication styles (high/low-context communication styles; how you speak may be different from how he/she speaks too)

Intercultural Dating

-         social context and past experiences are a strong influence on whether young people date interculturally

-         family attitudes play a big role (if you come from an intercultural family, you’re more likely to be open to the idea of intercultural dating, as compared to someone who comes from a family where everyone is from the same culture)

-         geographical data (compare China and Singapore – in which country is intercultural dating more likely to happen?)

Intercultural Marriage Problems

1.     The Romeo-and-Juliet Effect: Intense feelings of attraction because family prejudices essentially deny the couple’s blessing for marriage.

2.     Role: Wives may feel pressured into accepting their husband’s culture.

3.     Extended Family Intrusion: Like nosy aunties at CNY gatherings.

4.     Collectivistic vs Individualistic Cultures: ‘nuff said.

5.     Language and Misunderstanding: Which language is going to be used at home?

6.     Conflict Management Styles: Some cultures prefer to bottle things up while some others may prefer to just say what they think. This leads to MAJOR clashing.

7.     Child-rearing Attitudes and Practices: Perhaps the mother comes from a culture that heavily emphasises obedience in children, whereas the father may be from a culture that is more lenient when it comes to raising children.

8.     Expectations from the Community/Pressure from Society in General: Because society will judge you either way.

Most Common Issues in Intercultural Marriages

-         Values

-         Eating/Drinking and Habits (eg time of eating – early or late, style of eating – hands of chopsticks or knives and forks etc)

-         Gender roles (who is to be the more dominant one in the household?)

-         Attitudes regarding time, religion, place of residence, stress and ethnocentricism

Interaction Styles in Husband-Wife Relationship

Submission = One-way adjustment. One partner submits to the culture of the other partner, abandoning/denying his or her own. Difficult since it is both difficult and unfair for one person to completely abandon his or her culture.

Compromise = Each party gives up some of his or her own culturally-bound habits and beliefs to accommodate the other person. This involves both parties sacrificing things that are important to them. The question is, what do you sacrifice and what do you keep?

Obliteration = Creative adjustment. Both partners deal with differences by attempting to erase their individual cultures and forming their own. Normally attempted by people in a whole new environment. Not a viable long-term solution as it is difficult for people to completely cut themselves off.

Consensus = Mixing adjustment. A win-win adjustment based on agreement and negotiation. Requires flexibility from both parties to create a 3^rd culture. Exhausting but rewarding!

LECTURE TEN (10A – Influence of Media on Intercultural Communication)

Basically, media has created a world of information and change.

INFORMATION: eg the Newtown shooting or the Japan earthquake/tsunami.

CHANGE: eg people used to get married before moving out and finding their own crib, but not anymore.

Media Effects Theories

Hypodermic Needle Theory = Classic mass media theory that information from the media can have a relatively direct effect on a mass audience, who are also considered to play a somewhat passive role in information processing.

Minimalist Effects Theory = Whatever effects the media may have on its audiences are mediated therefore limited by factors. (eg the people around you may affect your opinions on a topic)

Cumulative Effects Theory = Nobody can escape the media’s influence or its messages, hence dominant view can snowball through the media. (usually over time, hence the word CUMULATIVE)

Media also focuses the audience’s attention on what is culturally important to think and talk about, but this may lead to AGENDA-SETTING.

Media presents culture in three ways:

1.     It directs the people’s attention towards codes of acceptable behaviour within society and how to talk about them. What’s allowed or disallowed within society? Media creates CHANGE. (eg the NKF saga – thanks to the media’s coverage, people were aware of the situation and thus hesitant to donate to the fund)

2.     Tells people what and who counts in the world (like you’d be more likely to know who the pope is as compared to some random person on the street).

3.     Helps people understand themselves and their connection with/disconnection from others. (eg people felt for the rape victim who came to Singapore for medical aid – there was a connection that was established between the subject and the media’s audience)

But between exposure (towards media) and effect (that the media has on audiences), there are other variables like:

-         interpersonal networks

-         cultural norms

-         values and world views

-         governments/leaders

Variables Between Exposure and Effect

-         Demographic Categories (age, occupation, ethnicity etc)

-         Group Memberships (which group do you belong to?)

-         Motivation, needs and salient (key) means of gratifying those needs

-         Personality Characteristics

How the Media Influences Us

1.     It Creates Awareness.

Through direct information about an event or idea’s existence (eg news, sports, political changes etc. Like the Superbowl – you are aware of this event’s existence)

2.     It Sets Agendas.

It calls attention to what is salient (key to what they want you to think), so people then talk about what is in the news. However, agenda-setting can also neglect other issues/concerns, especially for developing nations who experience less access to world media sources. (Since the media sets the news, it kind of “plans” what the people are exposed to)

3.     It Accelerates Changes.

It influences the people’s perception towards things and causes a change of behaviour and attitude.

4.     It Stimulates Rumours.

Details are often omitted in news broadcasts (eg did the boy bring a KNIFE or a CHOPPER to school? A bit of information can make a huge difference!), which can lead to ambiguity and vagueness.

5.     It Can Become An Addiction.

It may lead to obsessive compulsion, like addictions to games and chatrooms etc.

6.     It Can Be A Source of Violence.

It can predispose (cause tendencies towards) some adults and children towards violence through direct persuasion or triggering predisposition towards violence into action.

7.     It Can Create Effects, Though Not Necessarily Deliberately.

Media presentations that are not intentionally trying to persuade an audience may have a greater effect. (eg Harry Potter)

How the Media Influences Culture

1.     It can perpetuate stereotypes regarding childbirth, sexuality, religion, war etc.

That’s why socially-conscious media is trying to eliminate media stereotyping!

2.     Cultural learning.

George Gerbner’s cultivation hypothesis – the more a person is exposed to a construction of reality, the more it is believed. Repeated exposure can cultivate an indirect, cumulative set of beliefs and ideals.

3.     Creations of consumer  and entertainment needs.

It can solve audience needs as a form of escapism and emotional release, as well as create a motivation to buy new technology and other consumer products. Media may satisfy different social and emotional needs at different times in different ways (the users and gratification theory). For example, you may have an iPhone 4, but you may be convinced by the media to get an iPhone 5.

4.     Ethnic identification.

Media exposure may facilitate and potentially influence ethnic identification in positive ways. It influences that label that an ethnic group may adopt, and audiences may grow to identify with a particular ethnic group, leading to an enhancement in ethnic identity.

Media and International Communication

ü  Possibility of global village.

û  Problems with technical sophistication of media scope and quality.

-         technical innovation fractures the mass audience, splitting them into their specialised interests, so the media has become the way each one can participate in information to foster one’s specialised interests, which creates DISUNITY more than UNITY.

-         globalisation of information (North-South flow hypothesis - the same media that informs globally can also dominate globally)

-         cultural imperialism/media hegemony (media can colonise the thinking and values of a society)

ü  Growth in media content originating in other countries and targeting the USA, as well as Western media products adapting to local culture.

-         in the original Spiderman comics, the main character wore tight-fitting costumes, but when the idea was sold to India, they changed the character’s costume to fit the culture and its values.

-         although Hollywood is globally recognised, other players like Bollywood are emerging and gaining recognition too.

What We Need to Do

-         stay tuned to current events

-         be aware of the effects that the media may have on personal perceptions, and the positive/negative stereotypes that may arise from prolonged exposure to the media

-         be aware of the positive value of the media (they can open us up to new ideas and current events, and such positive learning can improve our understanding of the culture

-         use the media as a tool for understanding one view of culture

LECTURE TEN (10B – Global Etiquette)

Etiquette = Manners and behaviour considered acceptable in social and business situations.

Protocol = Customs and regulations dealing with diplomatic etiquette and courtesies expected in official dealings with people in various cultures, often associated with power and status.

The Many Branches of Global Etiquette

1.     Business Card Exchange

USA – Put the card in your pocket

Japan – Examine the card and comment on it

In meetings, put the card on the table in front of you.

It is also considered polite to give your name card to others with both hands.

2.     Position and Status

Note gender inequality! It sucks for the women but do note that women are generally considered of a lower status than men in some cultures!

Chinese – Age and hierarchy

Japanese – The higher the rank of the person you are introduced to, the lower you bow

3.     Electronic Communication Etiquette

Netiquette (especially when sending emails, oh god)

Telephone etiquette (it’s “Hello, this is ABC company. Who are you looking for?” not “HARLOW ABC COMPANY WHO YOU WAN TOK TO?!”)

4.     Gift-Giving

Wrap and present the gifts APPROPRIATELY.

USA – Gifts are opened in front of the giver and appreciation is expressed.

Business gifts to the office are shared by all, so do note that whatever you get has to be generic enough.

Flowers – BE CAREFUL WHAT FLOWERS YOU GET. Colours and types of flowers can have different meanings in different cultures!

Gift-Giving in Japan

-         It’s an art!

-         The wrapping/presenting of the gift are as important as the gift itself.

-         Wrap the gift beautifully, but don’t bother with ornate bows or decorations.

-         Colour used must be consistent with the occasion (red/gold/white for happy events, black/purple/white for other occasions like sad ones).

-         Don’t open the gift in front of the giver! It’s rude!

-         Don’t surprise your host with a present.

-         Present your gift in private; it’s less awkward for the recipient.

-         GOOD gifts include imported liquor, consumables of high quality, designer-made products, locally (Japanese)-made products.

-         BAD gifts include anything made anywhere else in Asia.

LECTURE ELEVEN

Business and Social Customs:

1.     Greeting/Handshaking

-         When in doubt, DON’T kiss or hug – your client might mistake you for some sexual predator =.=”

-         Don’t attempt to kill your client via handshake (squeezing his/her hand – that shit hurts!) or imitate a limp noodle (basically limply holding his/her hand – that’s just sad).

-         A moderately firm handshake should go down well.

-         Be aware of gender differences in some cultures (especially if you’re a woman – some cultures may frown upon contact between men and women, no matter how professional it is)

2.     Verbal Expressions

-         Make an effort to say some basic greetings in the local language (it’ll give your client a good impression as you’ll come across as someone who actually made an extra effort). Beware of slang though!

-         Make small talk, but don’t engage in topics involving politics, religion, salary, personal life etc. Do note that not all cultures like small talk though.

Chinese: Small talk = GOOD.

Japanese: Small talk = BAD. They prefer silence.

Americans: Small talk = BAD. It’s seen as a waste of time.

3.     Male/Female Relationships and Workplace Equality

-         In Korea, women don’t hold powerful positions in the government.

-         In Mexico, bosses greet female supervisor by pecking them on the cheek, but to Asians it may be seen as sexual harassment.

4.     Humour in Business

5.     Superstitions

6.     Taboos (practices or verbal expressions considered by a society to be improper or unacceptable)

7.     Dress and Appearance

-         what you wear sends a nonverbal message about you and your company (and your attitude towards work!)

-         determine what attire is customary/acceptable in the environment you are going to

-         be careful of what colours you are wearing!

8.     Office Customs and Practices

9.     Customary Behaviour/Demeanour

10.                        Bribery

Note: In some cultures like ours, bribery is considered unacceptable, but in some other cultures like Thailand and Indonesia, bribery is considered an unofficial norm.

11.                        Special Foods/Consumption Taboos

Be careful when hosting people from other cultures – don’t force them to eat something that they’re uncomfortable with (like how some foreigners dislike durian, so don’t force them!)

Slang = Informal, lexical terms used by specific social groups like teenagers. (eg “buzz off” or “salad dodger” or “stinks”)

Colloquialism = A word, phrase or paralanguage that is employed in conversational or informal language but not in formal speech or writing. (eg “gonna”, “wanna”)

Note: Colloquialisms are considered standard language while slang is not.

Conflict = Perceived incompatibility of goals, values, expectations, processes or outcomes.

Conflict as Opportunity

-         conflict is seen as a normal, useful process

-         all issues are subject to change through negotiation, direct confrontation and conciliation are valued

-         conflict is a necessary renegotiation of an implied contract (release of tension, redistribution of opportunity, renewal of relationships)

-         people tend not to think twice before confrontation

-         usually found in more INDIVIDUALISTIC cultures

Conflict as Destructive

-         conflict is seen as ultimately unproductive for relationships

-         perspective often rooted in spiritual or cultural values

-         tendency towards avoidance of confrontation and absence of direct expression of feelings (people tend to bottle their feelings up more)

-         usually found in many Asian cultures; more COLLECTIVISTIC cultures

-         think how Asian cultures generally look for harmony and usually want to save “face” (criticism is taken personally, so it’s considered a loss of “face”)

Conflict takes on a dialectical perspective – no one approach to conflict is appropriate in all situations. Some cultures are more prone to conflict, while others have low incidence (conflicts tend to be minimised, and they are also dealt with properly).

Cultural Differences

Individualism:

-         higher level of conflict (like segregated communities with high levels of stereotypes and discrimination – think of Northern Ireland with its Catholics vs Protestants issue)

-         there is identity conflict, emotional distance and lack of trust, as well as a socialisation that tolerates conflict and distrust

Collectivism:

-         lower level of conflict (more reflection done instead of confrontation)

-         interpersonal practices that build security and trust, as well as a strong linkage between individual and community interests

-         preference for joint problem-solving (decisions are in the hands of the disputers)

-         third parties made available to facilitate conflict management

-         emphasis made on the restoration of social harmony

-         strategies of conflict avoidance

Types of Conflict

Affective Conflict = Incompatibility of feelings/emotions. (eg a girl friendzoning a boy)

Conflict of Interest = Incompatibility of preferences for a course of action/plan to pursue (eg you can’t work in another company without informing your current one – obligations vs personal interest). It’s like how a teacher can’t teach his/her own child who goes to the same school that he/she is teaching in.

Value Conflict = Incompatibility of ideologies. (The ideologies you were brought up with – for example, are you pro-abortion or anti-abortion?)

Cognitive Conflict = Incompatibility of thought processes (Different POVs, like how 3 days may not mean a lot of time to you, but to someone else could mean a very long time)

Goal Conflict = Incompatibility of preferred outcome (Should you spend your extra money or save it for a rainy day?)

Styles Used When Dealing With Conflict

Dominating Style = high concern for self, low concern for others. (win-lose strategy: I must win, you must apologise to me first!)

Integrating Style = high concern for self and other, involves open and direct exchange of information in attempt to reach solution that is acceptable to both parties (requires a LOT of energy – you want to make sure that both parties are happy with the outcome)

Compromising Style = moderate degree of concern for self and other, since both individuals give up something to find a mutually acceptable solution. (less effective than the integrating style since there is less commitment to the solution)

Obliging Style = low concern for self, high concern for other, normally used if topic of conflict is minor and you value the relationship more than winning the argument. Differences and incompatibilities are played down (one person is made to be of a higher status than the other) and commonalities that satisfy the other party’s concerns are emphasised (the “I am always sorry” approach is used, but note that resentment may build up!). Less commitment is paid to the solution.

Avoiding Style = low concern for both self and other, viewed negatively in dominant cultural contexts. This approach may not be good, but it could help depending on the situation – it’s appropriate in situations where it allows for time to think of a response or if the issue is trivial. Cooling-off period = GOOD.

Factors that influence Conflict Management Style

-         Family background (if a child grows up with his/her parents constantly arguing, he/she may decide to use the same style when he/she grows up)

-         Gender

-         Ethnicity

-         Value differences (Individualism vs Collectivism, saving of “face”)

  

Managing Conflict

Mediation: Conflict resolution involving a third party/intermediary.

-         conflict transformer will assist disputants to think in new ways (for example, why exactly are both parties angry?)

-         can be done on informal basis (settling the problem between the two people and the mediator) or built into the legal system

-         different models of mediation used in different cultural contexts

Negotiation: Depends on individual cultural and personal characteristics.

-         the greater the difference between cultures, the greater the likelihood that miscommunication could result in a negative outcome

-         need to choose appropriate communication strategies in intercultural negotiations

-         understand who the negotiators are (choose the right people with an appropriate background!)

-         provide a conducive environment and if possible, have a local present

Cultural Noise = Anything that distracts or interferes with the message being communicated. (eg nonverbal messages like body language, space and gift-giving)

Power and Authority

Power = The ability to influence others.

Authority = The power to give commands and make final decisions. (how an alliance chooses to conduct decision-making, strategy-setting and influence over each other)

-         To create a synergy between global business partners, the firms need to have balanced authority, which allows each partner to share the decision-making role

-         The alliance will fall apart if one seeks a superiority advantage, claiming to possess superior resources or a superior position in the alliance

Environment of the Negotiation

Home game = more territorial (assertive) owners

-         when negotiators are on their home territory, they’re more assertive and may have an advantage of access to information and human resources

-         host negotiators may also have a feeling of superiority

-         so choose a NEUTRAL site, which will eliminate the psychological advantage of the home ground

-         also take note of the physical arrangement of the room and atmosphere (eg the seating arrangement) since certain positions may be considered a higher or lower ranking

Other Factors that could affect Intercultural Negotiations

-         Stereotypes (PCD could affect how you see the people or talk to them, which could lead to biasness as you both go in with a preconceived notion of each other – eg Americans may be seen as aggressive or money-minded)

-         Negotiation Styles (some communities are more high/low-context, so you need to know if they are more direct or indirect cultures.

LECTURE TWELVE

Intercultural communication brings about social change, but needs several components:

-         Innovation

-         that is communicated through certain channels

-         over time

-         among members of a social system

-         with certain effects.

Innovation as a Cultural Message

Innovation = An idea or product that is perceived as new.

An intercultural message would then contain inherently motivating features.

Characteristics:

1.     Relative Advantage

Degree to which the innovation appears better than its predecessor (eg Facebook vs Twitter – which is more convenient to the users?)

2.     Compatibility

Degree to which innovation is congruent with existing beliefs, attitudes, values and needs of receivers

3.     Complexity

Extent to which the innovation appears difficult to understand and use (the simpler the innovation is, the better it is due to it being easier to adopt)

4.     Trialability

Degree to which the innovation cam be sampled/tried on a small scale basis

5.     Observability

Degree to which an innovation can be viewed and scrutinised before actual adoption (the before and after)

For an idea to be adopted, it must be:

-         BETTER than the predecessor

-         CONGRUENT with existing beliefs

-         SIMPLE enough to understand

-         TRYABLE on a small scale basis

-         OBSERVABLE before actual adoption

Process of Decision-Making

1.     Knowledge Stage = Person gains awareness and some understanding of the innovation

2.     Persuasion Stage = Person evaluates the innovation

3.     Decision Stage = Person runs a small-scale trial

4.     Implementation = Person adopts innovation into the existing system

5.     Confirmation Stage = Person seeks reinforcement for the innovation decision that has been made

Note that the process is NOT unidirectional, and these stages may be short-circuited (stopped), compressed (this prolly means that some stages may occur at the same time) and reversed. The person may also choose to discontinue the decision at any stage.

Groups of People according to the Rate of Innovation Adoption

1.     Innovators (2.5% of population)

-         Venturesome people, eager to try new ideas

-         Can afford to take risks (likely to have more $$$ to afford irrational adoptions)

-         Often deviant from the social system

2.     Early Adopters (13.5% of population)

-         More innovative than the majority, but not deviant from community norms

-         Knowledgeable and respected enough to be a role model of sorts

-         Highest number of opinion leaders

-         Normally more highly-educated

3.     Early Majority (34% of population)

-         Adopt innovations just before the average people of the social system

-         Not many leaders from this group

-         More deliberate in their adoption, they’ll wait for feedback from the early adopters before making their decision

-         Less educated, less social mobility

4.     Late Majority (34% of population)

-         Adopt innovations just after the average people of the social system

-         Cautious; Approach innovations with healthy scepticism

-         Will choose to adopt innovations only after confirmation by the public or group

5.     Final Adopters (16% of population)

-         The last to adopt innovations (and some don’t even adopt the innovation)

-         Highly traditional, they base their decisions on those of previous generations

-         Suspicious of innovations and change agents

- Negative opinion leaders (generally senior in age, low socio-economic status)

Factors Associated with Innovativeness and Change

1.     Communication Sources

Orientation outside the social system, media exposure and interpersonal communication

2.     Attitudes towards Change

3.     Leadership Status

A person who perceives himself as an opinion leader typically adopts early

4.     Social/Demographic Variables

Education, literacy, previous experience etc

5.     Personality Characteristics

Empathy, venturesome, cosmopolitanism, desire to achieve

6.     Economic Factors

Size of organisation, high income, loan ability

7.     World View

Personal or cultural outlook towards fate can restrain innovativeness

8.     Social-system Readiness

Some cultures by nature embrace change more than others

9.     Cultural Involvement

More culturally involved people tend to be earlier adopters

10.                        Cultural Cohesion

Cultures that are highly cohesive tend to adopt as a unit

Change & Organisations

-         Innovation and change is prevalent

-         Inevitable for successful organisations

-         Organisational culture affects the innovation-and-change process

Organisational Change is needed when:

-         There’s a national competition for goods/services

-         Things get obsolete really fast

-         Productivity drops

-         Personnel shifts

-         Morale/Satisfaction is low

-         There is new leadership

-         There is acquisition or relocation

-         A consultant has completed recommendations

-         There is a structural/environmental change

-         There is significant failure

Factors influencing Organisational Innovativeness & Change

-         The leader must have a positive attitude towards change

-         Decentralisation of info-sharing and decision-making must take place (there’s less innovativeness when power and control is in the hands of only a few)

-         Organisation members must possess complexity (high level of knowledge and expertise)

-         Organisation must de-emphasise rules and procedures (there’s less innovativeness when things are formal; MORE red tape = LESS change)

-         High social interconnectedness must exist between organisational members (new ideas flow more rapidly and enhances innovativeness)

Strategies for Innovation & Change

-         Get close to the market (know what everyone needs)

-         Presence and communication of innovative info (consistently emphasise development and innovation in the organisation as well as make information available)

-         Social network (need to make contact with gatekeepers, opinion leaders etc)

-         Outside pressure (strikes, boycotts, legislations etc)

-         Change in top leaders (organisations change when the top management exercises personal and corporate change)

-         Job expectation technique (clarify job expectations among managers, peers and subordinates)

-         Management by objectives (management and subordinates participate in setting goals for the subordinate)

-         Job enrichment (makes the job more satisfying)

-         Team-building (provides team members with an opportunity to discuss possibilities for change)

-         Organisational development (increase organisational effectiveness by connecting individual desires for growth with organisational goals)

-         Changing the root metaphor/how the individual understands a situation (change fundamental assumptions about the organisation and the way people work)

Skills in Planning for Innovation and Cultural Change

-         Tailor message to fit cultural roles and past experiences

-         Consider the needs of the culture/organisation

-         Concentrate on opinion leaders (grooming)

-         Close the heterophily gap (the gap between pro-change and anti-change people)

-         Anticipate and prevent undesirable social consequences of innovation adoption

-         Do a demographic analysis of the target culture

-         Understand the use of the mass media

-         Build bridges, not walls (connect with informal opinion leaders and decision-makers who will lend credence to the message)

-         Don’t seek the cultural recluse (they’ll prevent long-range cultural adaptation)

-         Direct efforts toward members of existing homogeneous units

-         Practise empathy

Realise that while innovations are mostly beneficial, some may be harmful

Sorry if the format is a bit screwed up, for some reason I can't change it!

Feel free to use these notes for studying; all the best!